References

Albrecht, B.A., Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness, Science, 245, 1227-30, 1989.

Andreae, M.O., Climatic effects of changing atmospheric aerosol levels, in World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 16, Future Climates of the World (Ed. A.Henderson-Sellers), Elsevier, Amsterdam, in press, 1995.

Baum, B.A., R.F. Arduini, B.A. Wielicki, P. Minnis and S.-C. Tsay, Multilevel cloud retrieval using multispectral HIRS and AVHRR data: Nighttime oceanic analysis, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 5499-5513, 1994.

Bevis, M., S. Businger, T.A. Herring, C. Rocken et al., GPS meteorology: remote sensing of atmospheric water vapor using the Global Positioning System, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 15787-801, 1992.

Boer, E. and V. Ramanathan, Satellite based approach for modeling clouds in GCMs, submitted to J. Geophys. Res., 1995.

Boering, K.A., E.J. Hintsa, S.C. Wofsy, J.G. Anderson, B.C. Daube Jr., A.E. Dessler, M. Loewenstein, M.P. McCormick,
J.R. Podolske, E.M. Weinstock, and G.K. Yue, Measurements of carbon dioxide and water vapor in the northern hemisphere lower stratosphere and implications for troposphere-to-stratosphere exchange, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, in press, 1995.

Boucher, O., GCM Estimate of the indirect aerosol forcing using satellite retrieved cloud droplet effective radii, J. Climate, 8, 1403- 09, 1995.

Boucher, O. and U. Lohmann, The sulfate-CCN-cloud albedo effect: A sensitivity study with two general circulation models, Tellus 47B, in press, 1995.

Brock, C.A., P. Hamill, J.C. Wilson, H.H. Jonsson, and K.R. Chan, New particle formation in the upper tropical troposphere: a source of nuclei for the stratospheric aerosol, Science, in press, 1995.

Byrne, R. N., R. C. J. Somerville, and B. Subasilar, Broken-cloud enhancement of solar radiation absorption. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 878-886, 1996.

CAIO, Climate Atlas of the Indian Ocean, S. Hastenrath and P.J. Lamb, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 1979.

Cess, R.D., M.H. Zhang, P. Minnis, L. Corsetti, E.G. Dutton, B.W. Forgan, D.P. Garber, W.L. Gates, J.J. Hack, E.F. Harrison, X. Jing, J.T. Kiehl, C.N. Long, J.-J. Morcrette, G.L. Potter, V. Ramanathan, B. Subasilar, C.H. Whitlock, D.F. Young and Y. Zhou, Absorption of solar radiation by clouds: observations versus models, Science, 267, 496-9, 1995.

Cess, R.D. and M.H. Zhang, Response to "How much solar radiation do clouds absorb". Science, 271, 1133-1134, 1996.

Charlson, R.J., S.E. Schwartz, J.M. Hales, R.D. Cess, J.A. Coakley, Jr., J.E. Hansen, D.J. Hofmann, Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols, Science, 255, 423-30, 1992.

Chen, D.W., S.K. Sengupta and R.M. Welch, Cloud field classification based upon high spatial resolution textural features 2. Simplified vector approaches, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 14749-14765, 1989.

Chen, P., Isentropic cross-tropopause mass exchange in the extratropics, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 16,661-16,673, 1995.

Clarke, A.D., Aerosol light absorption by soot in remote environments, Aerosol Science and Technology, 10, 161-171, 1989.

Clarke, A.D., A Thermo-optic technique for the in situ analysis of size-resolved aerosol, Aerosol Physicochemistry, Atmospheric Environment, 25A, 635-645, 1991a.

Clarke, A.D., Atmospheric nuclei in the remote free troposphere, J. Atmos. Chem., 14, 1991b.

Clarke, A.D., Atmospheric nuclei in the Pacific mid-troposphere: Their nature, concentration and evolution, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 11, 20,633-20,647, 1993.

Clarke, A.D., J.N. Porter, F.P.J. Valero and P. Pilewskie, Vertical profiles of aerosol microphysics and optical extinction during ASTEX: A comparison of measured and modeled optical parameters, J. Geophys. Res., accepted, 1995.

Coakley, J.A., Jr., Reflectivities of uniform and broken layered clouds, Tellus, 43B, 420-433, 1991.

Coakley, J.A., Jr., and F.P. Bretherton, Cloud cover from high resolution scanner data: Detecting and allowing for partially filled fields of view, J. Geophys. Res., 87, 4917-4932, 1982.

Coakley, J.A., Jr., and R. Davies, Effect of cloud sides on reflected solar radiation as deduced from satellite observations,
J. Atmos. Sci
., 43, 1025-1035, 1986.

Coakley, J.A., Jr., R.L. Bernstein and P.A. Durkee, Effect of ship-stack effluents on cloud reflectivity, Science, 237, 1020-1022, 1987.

Danielsen, E.F., In situ evidence of rapid, vertical, irreversible transport of lower tropospheric air into the lower tropical stratosphere by convective cloud turrets and by larger scale upwelling in tropical cyclones, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8665-8582, 1993.

Dickerson, R.R., B.G. Doddridge, P.K. Kelley, K.P. Rhoads, Large-scale pollution of the atmosphere over the North Atlantic Ocean: Evidence from Bermuda, J. Geophys. Res., 100(5), 8945-8952, 1995.

Dunkerton, T.J., Evidence of meridional motion in the summer lower stratosphere adjacent to monsoon regions, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 16,675-16,688, 1995.

Durkee, P.A., F. Pfeil, E. Frost and R. Shema, Global analysis of aerosol particle characteristics, Atmos. Environ. 25, 2457-2471, 1991.

EPA Policy Options for Stabilizing Global Climate, Appendix B, D.A. Lashof and D.A. Tirpak, eds., Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1985.

Fishman, J., C.E. Watson, J.C. Larsen and J.A. Logan, Distribution of tropospheric ozone determined from satellite data,
J. Geophys. Res.
, 95, 3599-617, 1990.

Gleckler, P. J. and B. C. Weare, Uncertainties in global ocean surface heat flux climatologies derived from ship observations. Technical report, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison Report No. 26, 40 pp., 1995.

Gollmer, S.M., Harshvardhan, R.H. Cahalan, and J.B. Snider, Windowed and wavelet analysis of marine stratocumulus cloud inhomogeneity, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 3013-3030, 1995.

Greenwald T.J., G.L. Stephens, T.H. Vonderhaar, and D.L. Jackson, A physical retrieval of cloud liquid water over the global oceans using Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) observations, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18471-18488, 1993.

Han, Q., W.B. Rossow and A.A. Lacis, Near-global survey of effective droplet radii in liquid water clouds using ISCCP data,
J. Climate
, 7, 465-497, 1994.

Heymsfield, A.J., and G.M. McFarquhar, On the high albedos of cirrus in the tropical Pacific warm pool: microphysical interpretations from CEPEX and from Kwajalein, Marshall Islands. J. Atmos. Sci., in press, 1996.

Ignatov, A.M., L.L. Stowe, S.M. Sakerin and G.K. Korotaev, Validation of the NOAA/NESDIS satellite aerosol product over the North Atlantic in 1989, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 5123-5132, 1995.

Indian Ocean Atlas, Central Intelligence Agency, Washington DC, 1976.

Inoue, T., A cloud type classification with NOAA-7 split-window measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 3991-4000, 1987.

IPCC, Climate Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 1990.

IPCC, Climate Change, 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios. Cambridge University Press, 339 pp. ed., John T. Houghton, 1995.

Jones, A., D.L. Roberts and A. Slingo, A climate model study of indirect radiative forcing by anthropogenic sulfate aerosols, Nature, 370, 450-3, 1994.

Kaufman Y.J., Remote sensing of direct and indirect aerosol forcing. In Aerosol Forcing of Climate, R.J. Charlson and
J. Heintzenberg, John Wiley & Sons, 297-332, 1995.

Kelly, K.K., M.H. Proffitt, K.R. Chan, M. Loewenstein, J.R. Podolske, S.E. Strahan, J.C. Wilson, and D. Kley, Water vapor and cloud measurements over Darwin during the STEP 1987 tropical mission, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8713-8723, 1993.

Kent, G.S.;P.-H. Wang, M.P McCormick, K.M Skeens, Multiyear Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment II measurements of upper tropospheric aerosol characteristics. J. Geophys. Res.,100, (no.D7):13875-99, 1995.

Kiehl, J. T., Clouds and their effects on the climate system, Physics Today, 47,36-42, 1994.

Kiehl, J.T. and B.P. Briegleb, The relative roles of sulfate aerosols and greenhouse gases in climate forcing, Science, 260, 311-314, 1993.

Kiehl, J.T. and H. Rodhe, Modeling geographical and seasonal forcing due to aerosols. In Aerosol Forcing of Climate, R.J. Charlson and J. Heintzenberg, John Wiley & Sons, 281-296, 1995.

Kley, D., H.G.J. Smit, H. Vomel, S. Oltmans, V. Ramanathan, H. Grassl and P.J. Crutzen, Record low ozone observations in the convective regions of the Pacific, submitted to Science, 1995.

Krishnamurti, T.N., J. Xue, H.S. Bedi, K. Ingles and D. Oosterhof, Physical initialization for numerical weather prediction over the tropics, Tellus, 43, 53-81, 1991.

Krishnamurti, T.N., H.S. Bedi and K. Ingles, Physical initialization using the SSM/I rain rates, Tellus, 45A, 247-269, 1993.

Krishnamurti, T.N., G. Rohaly, D. Oosterhof, A note on the simulation of winter monsoon anomalies during an El Niño year. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 53, (no.1-2):51-9, 1994.

Krishnamurti, T.N., H.S. Bedi, D. Oosterhof, V. Hardiker, The formation of Hurricane Frederic of 1979. Monthly Weather Review, 122, (no.6):1050-74, 1994.

Krishnamurti, T.N., G.D. Rohaly, H.S. Bedi, On the improvement of precipitation forecast skill from physical initialization. Tellus, Series A (Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography), 46A, (no.5): 598-614, 1994.

Krishnamurti, T.N., S.K. Bhowmik, D. Oosterhof, G. Rohaly and N. Surgi, Mesoscale signatures within the tropics generated by physical initialization, Monthly Weather Review, 123, 2771-2790, 1995.

Krishnamurti, T.N., M.C. Sinha, M. Kanamitsu, D. Oosterhof, H. Fuelberg, R. Chatfield, D.J. Jacob and J. Logan, Passive tracer transport relevant to the TRACE-A experiment, accepted to J. Geophys. Research, 1996.

Kritz, M.A., S.W. Rosner, K.K. Kelly, M. Loewenstein, and K.R. Chan, Radon measurements in the lower tropical stratosphere: Evidence for rapid vertical transport and dehydration of tropospheric air, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 8725-8736, 1993.

Landgraf, J., thesis in progress, 1996.

Langner, J. and H. Rodhe, A global three-dimensional model of the tropospheric sulfur cycle, J. Atmos. Chem., 13, 225-65, 1991.

Lawrence, M., thesis in progress, 1996.

Lee, H.S. and T.N. Krishnamurti, Impact of physical initialization on cloud forecasts, Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 56, 261-273, 1995.

Lelieveld, J. and J. Heintzenberg, Sulfate cooling effect on climate through in-cloud oxidation of anthropogenic SO2, Science, 258, 117-120, 1992.

Li, X., H. Maring, D. Savoie, K. Voss and J. M. Prospero, The light scattering properties of Saharan dust particles in the North Atlantic trade winds, Nature, submitted, 1995.

Lin, X. and J.A. Coakley, Jr., Retrieval of properties for semitransparent clouds from multispectral infrared imagery data,
J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18,501-18,514, 1993.

Liou, K.-N., 1992: Radiation and Cloud Processes in the Atmosphere. Oxford University Press, 487 pp.

MAIIOE, Meteorological Atlas of the International Indian Ocean Experiment, National Science Foundation, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1972.

McFarquhar, G.M., and A.J. Heymsfield, Microphysical characteristics of three anvils sampled during the Central Equatorial Pacific Experiment (CEPEX). J. Atmos. Sci., in press, 1996.

Moody, J.L., A.A.P. Pszenny, A. Gaudry, W.C. Keene et al., Precipitation composition and its variability in the southern Indian Ocean: Amsterdam Island, 1980-1987, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 20769-86, 1991.

Murphy, D.M. and D.S. Thomson, Laser ionization mass spectroscopy of single aerosol particles, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 22, 237-249, 1995.

O'Hirok, W. and C. Gautier, The role of three-dimensional clouds on atmospheric absorption. submitted to Science, 1996.

Ohmura, A. and H. Gilgen, Re-evaluation of the global energy balance, Geophysical Monograph 75, IUGG 15, 93-110, 1993.

Penner, J., Quantifying and minimizing uncertainty of climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. Technical report, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Washington, DC. 53 pp., 1993.

Pham, M., G. Megie, G.-F. Muller, G. Brasseur, C. Granier, A three dimensional study of the tropospheric sulfur cycle, accepted,
J. Geophys. Res., Atmosphere, June, 1995.

Pilewskie, P. and F. P. J. Valero, Direct observations of excess solar absorption by clouds, Science, 267, 1626-9, 1995.

Pilewskie, P. and F. P. J. Valero, Response to "How much solar radiation do clouds absorb". Science, 271, 1134-1136, 1996.

Pincus, R. and M.B. Baker, Effect of precipitation on the albedo susceptibility of clouds in the marine boundary layer, Nature, 372, 250-2, 1994.

Platnick, S. and S. Twomey, Determining the susceptibility of cloud albedo to changes in droplet concentration with the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, J. Appl. Meteor., 33, 334-347, 1994.

Porter, J.N., A.D. Clarke and P. Flament, Deriving aerosol optical depths over the ocean from AVHRR: Modeling studies and validations, submitted to J. Geophys. Res., 1996.

Prabakhara, C., R.S. Fraser, G. Dalu, M-L. Wu and R.J. Curran, Thin cirrus clouds: Seasonal distribution over oceans deduced from Nimbus-4 IRIS, J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 27, 379-399, 1988.

Prospero, J. M., Mineral and sea salt aerosol concentrations in various ocean regions, J. Geophys. Res., 84, 725-31, 1979.

Pszenny, A., Particle size distributions of methane sulphonate in the tropical Pacific marine boundary layer, J. Atmos. Chem., 14, 273-284, 1992.

Ramanathan, V., B. Subasilar, G.J. Zhang, W. Conant, R.D. Cess, J.T. Kiehl, H. Grassl and L. Shi, Warm pool heat budget and shortwave cloud forcing: A missing physics? Science, 267, 499 503, 1995.

Rao, C.R.N., L.L. Stowe and E.P. McClain, Remote sensing of aerosols over the ocean using AVHRR data: Theory, practice and applications, Int. J. Remote Sens., 4-5, 743-749, 1989.

Rao, C.R.N. and J. Chen, Post-launch calibration of the visible and near infrared channels of the advanced very high resolution radiometer on NOAA-7, 9, and 11 spacecraft. NOAA Tech. Rpt. NESDIS 78. U.S. Dept. Commerce. Washington, D.C., 1994.

Ridley, B.A., J.G. Walega, J.E. Dye, and F.E. Grahek, Distributions of NO, NOx, NOy, and O3 to 12 km altitude during the summer monsoon season over New Mexico, J. Geophys Res., 99, 25,519-25,534, 1994.

Roelofs, G.-J. and J. Lelieveld, Distribution and budget of O3 in the troposphere calculated with a chemistry general circulation model. J. Geo phys. Res., 100, 20983-20998, 1995.

Saunders, R.W. and K.T. Kriebel, An improved method for detecting clear sky and cloudy radiances from AVHRR data, Int. J. Remote Sensing, 9, 123-150, 1988.

Sheridan, P.J., C.A. Brock, and J.C. Wilson, Aerosol particles in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere; elemental composition and morphology of individual particles in northern midlatitudes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 2587-2590, 1994.

Smith, G.R., R.H. Levin, P. Abel and H. Jacobowitz, Calibration of the solar channels of NOAA-9 AVHRR using high altitude aircraft measurements, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 7, 411-423, 1988.

Spiro, P. A., D. J. Jacob, and J. A. Logan, Global inventory of sulfur emissions with 1 degrees *1 degrees resolution. J. Geophys. Res., 97(D5), 6023-6036, 1992.

Stanger, G. and A. Majeed, Extreme rainfall events in the equatorial Indian Ocean, Weather, 49, 330, 1994.

Stephens, G. L., How much solar radiation do clouds absorb. Science, 271, 1131-1133, 1996.

Stephens, G. L. and S.-C. Tsay, On the cloud absorption anomaly. Quart. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 116, 671-704, 1991.

Stowe, L.L., R.M. Carey and P.P. Pelegrino, Montoring the Mt. Pinatubo aerosol layer with NOAA-11 AVHRR data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 159-162, 1992.

Tegen, I. and I. Fung, Modeling of mineral dust in the atmosphere: Sources, transport and optical thickness, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 22897-22914, 1994.

Tegen, I. and I. Fung, Contribution to the atmospheric mineral aerosol load from land surface modification. J. Geophys. Res., 100, 18707-18726, 1995.

Tegen, I., A.A. Lacis and I. Fung, The influences of mineral aerosols from disturbed soils on the global radiation budget, submitted to Nature, 1995.

Treadon, R.E., Physical initialization in the NMC global data assimilation system, accepted to Met. Atmos. Phys., 1995.

Tsuyuki, T., Variational data assimilation in the tropics using precipitation data. Part I: Column model, accepted to Met. Atmos. Phys., 1995.

UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 76, Environmental problems of the marine and coastal area of Maldives: National report, 1986.

US Department of State, Background Notes, Maldives, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1990.

Wells, A.J., The weather of the Maldive Islands, Weather, 3, 310, 1948.

Wetzel M.A. and T.H. Vonder Haar, Theoretical development and sensitivity tests of a stratus cloud droplet size retrieval method for AVHRR-K/L/M. Remote Sensing Environ., 36, 105-119, 1991.

Wild, M., A. Ohmura, H. Gilgen, and E. Roeckner, Validation of general circulation model radiative fluxes using surface observations. J. Clim., 8, 1309-1324, 1995.

Wilson, J.C., et al., In situ observations of aerosol and chlorine monoxide after the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo: effect of reactions on sulfate aerosol, Science, 261, 1140-1143, 1993.

Wolf, M. and G.M. Hidy, Aerosols and climate: Anthropogenic emissions and trends for 50 years, J. Geophys. Res., submitted, 1995.

World Almanac, R. Famighetti, ed., Funk and Wagnalls, Mawah, NJ, 1995.

Zhang, S.H., Y. Akutsu, L.M. Russell, R. Flagan and J. Seinfeld, Radial Differential Mobility Analyzer, Aerosol Science and Technology, 23, 3, 357-371, 1995.

Acknowledgements

The research reported here was funded by NSF ATM 94-05024 grant to the Center for Clouds, Chemistry and Climate. Publication of this document was funded by the Vetlesen Foundation Fund at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. This is publication #143 of the Center for Clouds, Chemistry and Climate.